American Revolution - New York, Philadelphia, Saratoga

American Revolution - New York, Philadelphia, Saratoga Previous: Opening Campaigns | American Revolution 101 | Next: The War Moves South The War Shifts to New York Having captured Boston in March 1776, General George Washington began shifting his army south to block an anticipated British move against New York City. Arriving, he divided his army between Long Island and Manhattan and awaited British General William Howes next move. In early June, the first British transports began appearing in lower New York Harbor and Howe established camps on Staten Island. Over the next several weeks Howes army grew to over 32,000 men. His brother, Vice Admiral Richard Howe commanded the Royal Navys forces in the area and stood by to provide naval support. The Second Continental Congress Independence While the British amassed strength near New York, the Second Continental Congress continued to meet in Philadelphia. Convening in May 1775, the group contained representatives from all thirteen American colonies. In final effort to reach an understanding with King George III, the Congress drafted the Olive Branch Petition on July 5, 1775, which asked the British government to address their grievances in order to avoid further bloodshed. Arriving in England, the petition was discarded by the king who was angered by the language used in confiscated letters written by American radicals such as John Adams. The failure of the Olive Branch Petition gave strength to those elements in Congress that wished to press for full independence. As the war continued, Congress began to assume the role of a national government and worked to make treaties, supply the army, and build a navy. Since it lacked the ability to tax, Congress was forced to rely on the governments of the individual colonies to provide the needed money and goods. In early 1776, the pro-independence faction began to assert more influence and pressured colonial governments to authorize reluctant delegations to vote for independence. After extended debate, Congress passed a resolution for independence on July 2, 1776. This was followed by the approval of the Declaration of Independence two days later. The Fall of New York In New York, Washington, who lacked naval forces, remained concerned that Howe could outflank him by sea anywhere in the New York area. Despite this, he felt compelled to defend the city due to its political importance. On August 22, Howe moved around 15,000 men across to Gravesend Bay on Long Island. Coming ashore, they probed the American defenses along the Heights of Guan. Finding an opening at Jamaica Pass, the British moved through the heights on the night of August 26/27 and struck American forces the next day. Caught by surprise, American troops under Major General Israel Putnam were defeated in the resulting Battle of Long Island. Falling back to a fortified position on Brooklyn Heights, they were reinforced and joined by Washington. Though aware that Howe could cut him off from Manhattan, Washington was initially reluctant to abandon Long Island. Approaching Brooklyn Heights, Howe turned cautious and ordered his men to begin siege operations. Realizing the dangerous nature of his situation, Washington left the position on the night of August 29/30 and succeeded in moving his men back to Manhattan. On September 15, Howe landed on Lower Manhattan with 12,000 men and at Kips Bay with 4,000. This forced Washington to abandon the city and assume a position to the north at Harlem Heights. The next day his men won their first victory of the campaign in the Battle of Harlem Heights. With Washington in a strong fortified postion, Howe elected to move by water with part of his command to Throgs Neck and then on to Pells Point. With Howe operating to the east, Washington was forced to abandon his position on northern Manhattan for fear of being cut off. Leaving strong garrisons at Fort Washington on Manhattan and Fort Lee in New Jersey, Washington withdrew to a strong defensive position at White Plains. On October 28, Howe assaulted part of Washingtons line at the Battle of White Plains. Driving the Americans off of a key hill, Howe was able to compel Washington to retreat again. Rather than pursue the fleeing Americans, Howe turned south to consolidate his hold on the New York City area. Assaulting Fort Washington, he captured the fortification and its 2,800-man garrison on November 16. While Washington was criticized for attempting to hold the post, he did so on Congress orders. Major General Nathanael Greene, commanding at Fort Lee, was able to escape with his men before being attacked by Major General Lord Charles Cornwallis. The Battles of Trenton Princeton Having taken Fort Lee, Cornwallis was ordered to pursue Washingtons army across New Jersey. As they retreated, Washington faced a crisis as his battered army began to disintegrate through desertions and expiring enlistments. Crossing the Delaware River into Pennsylvania in early December, he made camp and attempted to reinvigorate his shrinking army. Reduced to around 2,400 men, the Continental Army was poorly supplied and ill-equipped for winter with many of the men still in summer uniforms or lacking shoes. As in the past, Howe displayed a lack of killer instinct and ordered his men into winter quarters on December 14, with many strung out in a series of outposts from New York to Trenton. Believing an audacious act was needed to restore the publics confidence, Washington planned a surprise attack on the Hessian garrison at Trenton for December 26. Crossing the ice-filled Delaware on Christmas night, his men struck the following morning and succeeded in defeating and capturing the garrison. Evading Cornwallis who had been sent to catch him, Washingtons army won a second victory at Princeton on January 3, but lost Brigadier General Hugh Mercer who was mortally wounded. Having achieved two unlikely victories, Washington moved his army to Morristown, NJ and entered winter quarters. Previous: Opening Campaigns | American Revolution 101 | Next: The War Moves South Previous: Opening Campaigns | American Revolution 101 | Next: The War Moves South Burgoynes Plan In the spring of 1777, Major General John Burgoyne proposed a plan for defeating the Americans. Believing that New England was the seat of the rebellion, he proposed cutting the region off from the other colonies by moving down the Lake Champlain-Hudson River corridor while a second force, led by Colonel Barry St. Leger, advanced east from Lake Ontario and down the Mohawk River. Meeting at Albany, Burgoyne and St. Leger would press down the Hudson, while Howes army advanced north. Though approved by Colonial Secretary Lord George Germain, Howes role in the plan was never clearly defined and issues of his seniority precluded Burgoyne from issuing him orders. The Philadelphia Campaign Operating on his own, Howe prepared his own campaign for capturing the American capital at Philadelphia. Leaving a small force under Major General Henry Clinton at New York, he embarked 13,000 men on transports and sailed south. Entering the Chesapeake, the fleet traveled north and the army landed at Head of Elk, MD on August 25, 1777. In position with 8,000 Continentals and 3,000 militia to defend the capital, Washington dispatched units to track and harass Howes army. Aware that he would have to face Howe, Washington prepared to make a stand along the banks of the Brandywine River. Forming his men in a strong position near Chadds Ford, Washington awaited the British. In surveying the American position on September 11, Howe elected to use the same strategy he employed at Long Island. Using Lieutenant General Wilhelm von Knyphausens Hessians, Howe fixed the American center in place along the creek with a diversionary attack, while marching the bulk of this army around Washingtons right flank. Attacking, Howe was able to drive the Americans from the field and captured the bulk of their artillery. Ten days later, Brigadier General Anthony Waynes men were beaten at the Paoli Massacre. With Washington defeated, Congress fled Philadelphia and reconvened at York, PA. Outmaneuvering Washington, Howe entered the city on September 26. Eager to redeem the defeat at Brandywine and re-take the city, Washington began planning a counterattack against British forces located at Germantown. Devising a complicated assault plan, Washingtons columns became delayed and confused in the thick morning fog on October 4. In the resulting Battle of Germantown, American forces achieved early success and were on the verge of a great victory before confusion in the ranks and strong British counterattacks turned the tide. Among those who had performed badly at Germantown was Major General Adam Stephen who had been drunk during the fighting. Not hesitating, Washington sacked him in favor of the promising young Frenchmen, the Marquis de Lafayette, who had recently joined the army. With the campaign season winding down, Washington moved the army to Valley Forge for winter quarters. Enduring a hard winter, the American army underwent extensive training under the watchful eye of Baron Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben. Another foreign volunteer, von Steuben had served as a staff officer in the Prussian army and imparted his knowledge to the Continental forces. The Tide Turns at Saratoga While Howe was planning his campaign against Philadelphia, Burgoyne moved forward with the other elements of his plan. Pressing down Lake Champlain, he easily captured Fort Ticonderoga on July 6, 1777. As a result, Congress replaced the American commander in the area, Major General Philip Schuyler, with Major General Horatio Gates. Pushing south, Burgoyne won minor victories at Hubbardton and Fort Ann and elected to move overland towards the American position at Fort Edward. Moving through the forest, Burgoynes progress was slowed as the Americans felled tree across the roads and worked to obstruct the British advance. To the west, St. Leger laid siege to Fort Stanwix on August 3, and defeated an American relief column at the Battle of Oriskany three days later. Still commanding the American army, Schuyler dispatched Major General Benedict Arnold to break the siege. As Arnold approached, St. Legers Native American allies fled after hearing exaggerated accounts regarding the size of Arnolds force. Left on his own, St. Leger had no choice but to retreat west. As Burgoyne neared Fort Edward, the American army fell back to Stillwater. Though he had won several minor victories, the campaign had cost Burgoyne heavily as his supply lines lengthened and men were detached for garrison duty. In early August, Burgoyne detached part of his Hessian contingent to search for supplies in nearby Vermont. This force was engaged and decisively defeated at the Battle of Bennington on August 16. Three days later Burgoyne made camp near Saratoga to rest his men and await news from St. Leger and Howe. Previous: Opening Campaigns | American Revolution 101 | Next: The War Moves South Previous: Opening Campaigns | American Revolution 101 | Next: The War Moves South Two miles to the south, Schuylers men began fortifying a series of heights on the west bank of the Hudson. As this work progressed, Gates arrived and took command on August 19. Five days later, Arnold returned from Fort Stanwix and the two began a series of clashes over strategy. While Gates was content to remain on the defensive, Arnold advocated striking at the British. Despite this, Gates gave Arnold command of the left wing of the army, while Major General Benjamin Lincoln led the right. On September 19, Burgoyne moved to attack the American position. Aware that the British were on the move, Arnold secured permission for a reconnaissance in force to determine Burgoynes intentions. In the resulting Battle of Freemans Farm, Arnold decisively defeated the British attack columns, but was relieved after a fight with Gates. Having suffered over 600 casualties at Freemans Farm, Burgoynes position continued to worsen. Sending to Lieutenant General Sir Henry Clinton at New York for aid, he soon learned that none was forthcoming. Short on men and supplies, Burgoyne resolved to renew the battle on October 4. Moving out three days later, the British attacked American positions at the Battle of Bemis Heights. Encountering heavy resistance, the advance soon bogged down. Pacing at headquarters, Arnold finally departed against Gates wishes and rode to the sound of the guns. Aiding on several parts of the battlefield, he led a successful counterattack on the British fortifications before being wounded in the leg. Now outnumbered 3-to-1, Burgoyne attempted to retreat north towards Fort Ticonderoga on the night of October 8. Blocked by Gates and with his supplies dwindling, Burgoyne elected to open negotiations with the Americans. Though he initially demanded an unconditional surrender, Gates agreed to a treaty of convention whereby Burgoynes men would be taken to Boston as prisoners and permitted to return to England on the condition that they not fight in North America again. On October 17, Burgoyne surrendered his remaining 5,791 men. Congress, unhappy with the terms offered by Gates, overruled the agreement and Burgoynes men were placed in prisoner camps around the colonies for the remainder of the war. The victory at Saratoga proved key in securing a treaty of alliance with France. Previous: Opening Campaigns | American Revolution 101 | Next: The War Moves South

GM Foods †Solving Hunger or Creating Chemical Cocktails

GM Foods – Solving Hunger or Creating Chemical Cocktails Free Online Research Papers Between 1999 and 2005, a reported 850 million people were malnourished worldwide (Skoet Stamoulis, 2006.) The worlds population is expected to reach about nine billion by 2050 (Suzuki, 1999), and available farm land is decreasing (Egide L. Nizeyimana, 2002.)This means that global food provisions must increase in order to supply the growing population (UN EC Council 2008.) Genetic engineering of food crops as a means of yielding higher quantities as well as better quality produce has been suggested as an answer (Coghlan, 2005). However, recent controversies about the reliability of claims made about higher crop yields, in addition to public distrust of government control of GM food, clouds the argument for this solution. Many books and journal articles are questioning if genetically modified (GM) foods can alone solve Third World food shortage, and in comparison, very few support it. The new face of hunger In his (March 2008) article in the Washington Post, the Secretary-General of the United Nations Ban Ki-Moon highlighted a newly emerging threat to the poor and starving people of the world (Ki-Moon, 2008.) Soaring food prices as well as deflating real wages are affecting fragile democracies and food security. People are buying lesser amounts of food and/or cheaper, less nutritious food, and by doing so are affecting their future health. Ki-Moon calls upon the UN to meet urgent humanitarian needs, strengthen on-going UN programs that are fighting world hunger and build drought and flood defence systems to lessen impacts of weather related distresses to micro agricultures. He calls for increase of agricultural production by ‘introducing vital science and technologies that offer permanent solutions for hunger’. Does the Secretary-General mean GM technologies are part of the future action? Living with genetically modified foods The certain differences between traditional breeding (cross breeding within the species’ gene pool that has been with us since ancient ages) and genetic engineering (taking a specific gene out of one genus and placing it into another organism) are clear. It is possible to cross a potato with another type of potato naturally but not with a lemon. Even when groups that are likely to be closely related do succeed in traditional breeding, the litter is generally infertile, like mules for example in the case of horses and donkeys (Anderson, 2000.) With the help of genetic engineering, bio-scientists could place an herbicide resistant gene taken from bacteria into a soy bean to significantly enhance the traditional farm’s chance of controlling weeds, since weed killers could be then sprayed on fields without hurting the soy bean crop. Gene technology provides new ways of identifying particular characteristics of living organisms and transferring them. Genetically modified foods contain genetically engineered ingredients. In the early 1990’s, GM foods were released to the market without labelling due to the then non-existent laws (Anderson, 2000.) Currently the sale and use of GM foods on the Australian and New Zealand market is controlled by Food Standards Australia New Zealand (FSANZ.) Despite the relentless and transparent process for assessing the safety of GM foods, FSANZ admits that ‘†¦the goal of the safety assessment is not to establish the absolute safety of the GM food, but rather to consider whether the GM food is comparable to the conventional counterpart food†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ meaning that they only check the GM food’s chemical composition and not the future effects of the product (FSANZ, 2008.) It is true that millions of people have consumed GM foods or food ingredients without undesirable effects on their well being, and similarly there have been no reports of deaths caused by the consumption of GM foods (Roller, 2001.) Nevertheless in countries where hunger is more prevalent than Australia, there are no ‘more-sophisticated’ tests available to ensure public safety due to expensive set ups of authoritarian bureaucracies. Even though international regulatory services are available to these countries, the implementations of the outcomes of these services are ignored due to the influence of international biochemical companies (Murray, 2003.) GM foods and corporate globalisation in the Third World The advances of mainly North American bio companies (Monsanto, DuPont, etc) and the favourable reception by the American public have given GM foods a disputed image. The organisations and their predecessors built their fortunes on local agricultural business operations and were also involved in the ‘Green revolution’ starting in the 1940’s. The debated aspects of this agricultural transformation in the Third World and the questionable business ethics of these companies are the origin of preconceived distrust from consumer protection bodies in Europe (Borlaug, 2000: Murray, 2003.) Africa, where allegedly GM food production could help local communities’ hunger has proved to be an effortless catch by biotechnical operations. Imposed foreign interests are creating confusion with no clear strategy about risk assessment, while access to scientific literature is difficult and public debate is not encouraged. Regardless, African countries are going ahead with GM food crops. As Maryke Steffens’ June 2008 article states ‘Burkina Faso, Kenya, Malawi and Uganda are preparing for trials with Bt cotton engineered to carry the insect-killing Bt toxin. Kenya is pursuing transgenic maize, sweet potato and cassava. Nigeria is looking into Bt cowpea, and virus-resistant cassava is in the pipeline in Nigeria and Uganda’ (Steffens, 2008.) Asia is not only the world largest producer and end user of food (Feffer, 2004), but has its own problem with food shortages due to its natural disaster occurrences. Should the continent adopt the American attitude towards GM food (that it is safe to eat, safe to grow, and the only way to feed populations) – then the new varieties of crops will change the world. If Asian countries prefer the European view of caution, by labelling GM products and establishing a system that can trace health problems back to their source, globalised biotechnology will not have the opportunities it hoped for. In Central and South America more than 52 million people suffer from malnutrition or hunger (FAO, 2008.)Yet strangely enough, the region is one of the biggest exporters of food. Agricultural GM technology is widely used in Argentina, Brazil and Chile. During the early years of introducing transgenic crops into the region, biotech companies did not charge farmers royalties to use the technology. But now that farmers are keen, the multinationals are pressuring the government for payment of intellectual property rights. Paraguayan farmers have to pay Monsanto $2 per tonne (Altieri Pengue, 2005.) Scientists are getting it wrong Sir David King former Chief Scientific Adviser and Head of the United Kingdom Government Office of Science claimed how useful GM farming could be in feeding the Third World using an example of crop trials around Lake Victoria in Kenya (Poulter, 2007.) During the trial he suggested that scientists discovered chemical identities in plants which attracted root destroying pests. He proposed that by taking this chemical gene element out of crops and inserting it into grass that grow besides commercial plants will encourage pests to eat the grass rather than the food and in turn the crop will produce up to 40-50% more yield. Sir David got it wrong by not properly describing the research in Africa which had no connections to GM technology. Scientists involved with the project found plants that were naturally able to keep weeds away and attract pests. This so called ‘push and pull’ system resulted in the better than expected crop produce. Sir David later resigned from his offic e. A virus resistant GM sweet potato, which was developed by Monsanto in the US, failed a three year test in Kenya in 2004. (Gathura, 2004) The transgenic sweet potato was imported to Kenya for tests after it was developed to have a coat protein responsible for virus resistance. The initial genetic engineering work was done at the Monsanto laboratories, using virus-resistant technologies. The study articulated concerns whether the gene expression was adequate or it failed to address the diversity of virus in this region or just that the gene construct was inappropriate. Curiously during the trials non-transgenic crops used as control produced much more sweet potato compared to the transgenic ones. The tests have raised questions that bio-engineered techniques tried out of the continent may not be replicated in Africa with laboratory results. Australia’s top scientific body, CSIRO was involved in a GM food related controversy recently. Following CSIRO’s campaign to convince the Greenpeace endorsed ‘GM-Free Chefs’ charter’ members not to boycott GM food products, it was revealed that the organisation’s Plant Industry Deputy TJ Higgins have made inaccurate claims. (Wilson, 2008) His CSIRO letter headed personal message to the charter’s top 50 chefs stated assurances that independently reviewed tests have not found any connection between health problems and GM†. His declarations were dismissed by nutritional biochemist Dr Judy Carman, who was employed by Western Australian government to carry out independent studies into the safety of GM foods. Dr Higgins is CSIRO’s co-inventor of the GM Field Pea. The invention process was abandoned because toxicologists found it caused immune problems and lung damage in mice. In his letter to the chefs he also claims that ‘ it is untrue to say that GM food has not been tested for human safety. It has, and very widely. These independently reviewed tests have not found any connection between health problems and GM.’ One of the co-operator of tests of Higgin’s GM Pea, toxicologist Dr Aprad Pusztai, disputes this as he says: ‘There is only one partial clinical study with one GM crop (RR soybean) done in Newcastle and published in 2004 No other human study has been published.’ This study found that genetically modified material might survive in the human intestine, something which is not reassuring for the public. The biochemist’s and the toxicologist’s comments raise doubts whether Higgins, as a plant industry scientist, qualified to make the claims in his letter campaign. GM Foods solving world hunger or chemical cocktails? World hunger is not a myth. The collectively held beliefs that have no basis in explaining world hunger are. We let to believe that there is not enough food in the world to feed the hungry. Then why is the Third World providing a large chunk of our planets daily food? GM foods have been proclaimed as a new agricultural revolution, then why are countries (India, Mexico, Philippines) that allegedly benefitted from the last agricultural revolution of the 1940’s still have a hungry population? Should we accept the claim that GM foods will provide the hungry with food, more in quantity and better in nutrition, we are still poised with the problem of distribution, rising prises and poverty. Arguably genetic modifications of living organisms have been with us since cross-breeding and hybrids, but now scientists are able to manipulate animal and plant cells to the extent that was unimaginable 20 years ago. Gene technology has well-known functions in medicine (insulin, cancer-treatments, etc) not just in our food chain, GM is not evil. However, scientists’ work and reputation can be quickly destroyed when innovations in gene technology get rushed through in commercially funded studies or field tests with possible errors. Hugh Mackay says, in his ethical and moral aspects examining book titled ‘Right and wrong’ that, ‘Freedom to choose is no freedom at all unless it is accompanied by the confidence of knowing we have made the right choice.’ GM foods will not solve world hunger, and we have not got enough knowledge to safely say it is harmless or dismiss it as chemical cocktails. More research and public education needed. Altieri, M. A., Pengue, W. A. (2005). GM Soya Disaster in Latin America. Retrieved 15 August, 2008, from i-sis.org.uk/SDILA.php Anderson, L. (2000). Genetic engineering, food, and our environment. Melbourne: Scribe Publications. Aspin, L., Blake, G., Gualtieri, R., Fanning, A., Cornius-Randall, R. (2004). Food Technology. Melbourne: Pearson Education Australia. Borlaug, N. (2000). The green revolution revisited and the road ahead. 30 year anniversary lecture by a Nobel Peace Prize Laureate. from http://nobelprize.org/peace/articles/borlaug/borlaug-lecture.pdf Choice Magazine. (2003). GM: Genetically modified food, How GM foods affect your life. . Retrieved 10 August, 2008, from choice.com.au/viewArticle.aspx?id=100255catId=100288tid=100008p=1title=GM%3a+Genetically+modified+food Coghlan, A. (2005). Modified Crops, Good News for Farmers. New Scientist(186), 11. Doeg, C. (2005). Crisis management in the food and drinks industry: a practical approach. New York: Springer Science+Business Media. Eastham, J. F., Sharples, L., Ball, S. D. (2001). Food supply chain management: issues for the hospitality and retail sector. Oxford: Reed educational and professional publishing. Egide L. Nizeyimana, G. W. P. a. E. D. W. (2002). Tracking Farmland Loss. Retrieved 12 August, 2008, from geotimes.org/jan02/feature_land.html#bottom FAO. (2008). Freeing Latin America and the Caribbean from hunger. Retrieved 15 August, 2008, from fao.org/newsroom/en/focus/2008/1000780/index.html Feffer, J. (2004). Asia Holds the Key to the Future of GM Food Retrieved 12 August, 2008, from http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/display.article?id=4956 FSANZ. (2008). Frequently Asked Questions on Genetically Modified Foods Retrieved 12 August, 2008, from foodstandards.gov.au/foodmatters/gmfoods/frequentlyaskedquest3862.cfm Gathura, G. (2004). Monsantos GE Potato Fails in Africa. Retrieved 12 August, 2008, from organicconsumers.org/monsanto/africapotato020204.cfm Ki-Moon, B. (2008). The new face of hunger. Washington Post Lappe, F. M., Collins, J., Rosset, P. (1998). World hunger, 12 myths. Oakland, California: Earthscan. Mackay, H. (2004). Right and wrong: how to decide for yourself. Sydney: Hodder. Murray, D. R. (2003). Impacts of genetically modified plants in the Third World. In Seeds of concern: the genetic manipulation of plants (pp. Pages 115 to 128). Sydney: UNSW Press Book. Poulter, S. (2007). Scientist who claimed GM crops could solve Third World hunger admits he got it wrong. Daily Mail Roller, S. (2001). Genetically Modified Foods: Threat or Opportunity? London: School of Applied Science, South Bank University. Ronald, P. C., Adamchak, R. W. (2008). Tomorrows Table: Organic Farming, Genetics, and the Future of Food New York: Oxford University Press. Scrinis, G. (2000). The Precise Problem with GM Foods. The Age Skoet, J., Stamoulis, K. (2006). The state of food insecurity in the world. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Steffens, M. (2008). Agri-biotech in Africa: safety first? Retrieved 11 August, 2008, from http://greenbio.checkbiotech.org/news/2007-06-13/Agri-biotech_in_Africa_safety_first_/ Suzuki, D. (1999). And baby makes six billion. Retrieved 20 August, 2008, from davidsuzuki.org/About_us/Dr_David_Suzuki/Article_Archives/weekly10209901.asp United Nations Economic and Social Council. (2008). Current global food crisis will require increasing amounts of humanitarian assistance. Paper presented at the Humanitarian challenges related to global food aid. Wilson, K. (2008). CSIRO scientists GM letter campaign backfires Retrieved 10 August, 2008, from crikey.com.au/Politics/20080721-CSIRO-scientist-campaign.html Research Papers on GM Foods - Solving Hunger or Creating Chemical CocktailsGenetic EngineeringMarketing of Lifeboy Soap A Unilever ProductTwilight of the UAWPETSTEL analysis of IndiaBionic Assembly System: A New Concept of SelfDefinition of Export QuotasLifes What IfsThe Effects of Illegal ImmigrationRelationship between Media Coverage and Social andOpen Architechture a white paper

Men an Endangered Species Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Men an Endangered Species - Essay Example This threatens the productivity of men in the near future if the trend continues. The major reason is that men are consuming a lot of estrogen from plastic liners of cans, some paints, and even soy-based foods (1). Another explanation for the threatened extinction of men is that there is lose of testosterone and a significant rise in estrogen as men age. When men start producing more estrogen, which is the main female sex hormone they are likely to become more feminine or womanly. On the contrary, as a woman age there is an equal fall of their hormones levels hence little or no major changes. The rise of estrogen levels and the falling testosterone in older men could also explain why there is a sudden attraction to members of their own sex even if it had not occurred before. This premise implicate that as older men become more feminine, there is an increase in susceptibility of the extinction of the male species (Parker, 2). Several studies also indicate that there is a threat for th e extinction of the Y chromosome, which majorly determines the male sex. These studies deem that the Y chromosome had approximately 1,400 genes on it three hundred million years ago, and presently it has only got 45 left (Perloe, 2). Possibly significant genes from the Y chromosome will adopt habitation on another chromosome (3). In the 1970s, scientists developed a method of separating X and Y-chromosomes from sperm. The assertion behind its development was to make couples naturally choose males (the Y chromosome). This trend however becomes the opposite since 2 to 1, selects baby girls over baby boys (Baehr, 2). However, the only reason why scientists are not sure if men are susceptible to... This paper analyzes in detail the various reasons as to why men are an endangered species. Some of the reasons that men are susceptible to extinction are scientific, while others are sociological. Scientific reasons, assert the possibility of gradual extinction of the male chromosomes, while the sociological reasons deem the loss of social roles. The major reason why men are an endangered species is that of loss of the reproductive power. Several studies indicate that men are increasingly having reduced sperm count due to various environmental toxins. The toxins that make men infertile include Teflon, pesticides, plastic, cosmetics and hormones found in food. In addition, some men, especially in many parts of Africa are vulnerable of loosing their reproductive potential due to taking illicit homemade brews. There has been extensive research and several debates concerning the susceptibility of extinction of the male species. Proponents of this premise assert that there is overwhelming evidence that support this connotation. These reasons include the gradual extinction of the Y chromosome, reduced sperm counts as well as rise in estrogen levels in older men. Other reasons include the loss of social and reproductive roles by men due to increased awareness of women and artificial forms or fertilization respectively. Moreover, other chemicals that mimic the effects of estrogen for instance 'Xeno-Oestrogens accelerate this susceptibility.' These chemicals are present in most of the common products that men use presently.

Surveys in Measuring Flexible Employment in the UK Essay

Surveys in Measuring Flexible Employment in the UK - Essay Example A broad definition of 'atypical' employment is that adopted by Delsen (1991), who describes it as deviating 'from full time open ended work employment: part time work, seasonal work'. In the US the most common term which largely overlaps what is referred to in Europe as flexible working patterns is 'contingent work' (Freedman, 1986). ( H Harris, C Brewster and PSparrow,2003 pg 101) Although some consultants have tried to foster the term 'complementary working', Polivk and Nardone (1989) define contingent employment as 'any arrangement that differs from full time, permanent, wage and salary employment'. Morishima and Feuille (2000) noting that contingent employment can include a variety of workers The common themes that unite the individuals in these diverse categories are that they receive few or no fringe benefits, they have little or no expectation of long-term employment with the firm on whose premises they work at any given time, and they occupy a secondary position to the regular, full-time employees in the firm's status hierarchy. They conclude that although an accurate account of the situation in the USA and Japan, within the European contest such distinctions do not hold true. The complex aspects of flexible working practices render varying effects and implications. Part time work for example will apply to any work hours short of the normal working week for each country which vary across the globe. For instance in France and Belgium, part time work is defined as four-fifths or less of the collectively agreed working time; in the Netherlands and USA as less than 35 hours per week; in the UK as less than 30 hours, with lower thrash holds in relation to social security contributions. Elsewhere, the norm is concentrated around 25-30 hours per week (Bolle, 1997 and Brewster et al, 1996). THE FLEXIBLE FIRM Source: as cited in Keizer (2007). Various scholars have had their significant contributions to the entirety of the Flexibility discipline. Nonetheless John Atkinson stands out for his 'The Flexible Firm" model. Whilst at the institute of man power studies John Atkinson and his colleagues propounded the much quoted model depicting the divisions, between 'core and peripheral' work forces. In this model the core workers are full time permanent career employees who have won security by virtue of committing to functional flexibility in the short term and long term basis. The organisational value of such is encapsulated in the terms and conditions that bind them whilst their remuneration is largely influenced by their achievements including those of t the team and the organisation. (John Stredwick & Steve Ellis, Flexible Working Practices techniques and innovations, pg 11 & 12) The first peripheral group has less job security and access to career opportunity. And their jobs are plug in ones, not skill specific to the firm. Organization looks to the market place to fill the jobs, many of which are filled by the women, and numerical flexibility is achieved by the normal wastage which is fairly high. .(John Stredwick & Steve Ellis ,Flexible Working Practices techniques and innovations, pg 11 & 12) The second peripheral is an extension of the first, with much part time working, shift working, zero hour and short term contracts which maximize flexibility. Such terms and conditi

Does Illegal Immigration Help or Hurt U.S. Economy Essay

Does Illegal Immigration Help or Hurt U.S. Economy - Essay Example According to the research findings illegal immigrations are not good for the United States of America because they are helping less and causing more harm not only to the U.S. society but also to the overall economy. Large-scale illegal immigrations produce a negative impact on the economy of the United States. Some of the most obvious economic impacts of illegal immigrations include less job opportunities, increased poverty, increased educational costs, decreased foreign investment in immigrant-populated areas due to increased fear of crimes, and less number of skilled employees in the original countries of the immigrants. It is a fact that when the host country starts hiring illegal immigrants on low salaries, the number of available jobs decrease for the local citizens. Espenshade states, â€Å"Illegal immigrants have high rates of labor force participation but typically earn about 30% less than their legal counterparts from the same region of the world†. However, it also re sults in increase in the graph of poverty because when people will not have good jobs, they will not have money to spend which will ultimately increase poverty. Moreover, low salaries for the illegal immigrants also increase poverty. â€Å"Their wages are low and they are more affected by downturns in the economy† (â€Å"Immigration Policy†). Illegal immigrants do not have skills and qualification that are required to get good jobs. They just go to the United States to do low profile jobs for money, which also results in overpopulation and poverty for the local and poor people. Poor people do not have enough resources to get standard education, which makes them go for low profile professions, such as, waiters, dishwashers, petrol pump operators, sanitary workers, and plumbers. However, when employers fill such jobs with illegal immigrants on low wages, no place is left for the local citizens. According to Sterne, employers prefer to hire undocumented immigrants, as the y are cheaper and unregulated (556). Increase in the number of illegal immigrants also impose burden on the taxpayers. Illegal immigrants receive all social services and do not pay the taxes that they should actually pay in return of those social services. Increase is the number of crimes is one of the major drawbacks associated with immigrations. Sadowski-Smith states, â€Å"Undocumented immigrants are also increasingly criminalized within punitive local, regional, and national legislation that further exacerbates vulnerability to exploitation† (799). Some percentage of the immigrants falls into criminal activities when they do not find jobs or any kind of work in the countries where they migrate. Some of those crimes include kidnapping for ransom, stealing money, rape, robbery, physical

Examining The Early Churches Strengths And Weaknesses Religion Essay

Examining The Early Churches Strengths And Weaknesses Religion Essay The purpose of this essay is to see how the church began 2,000years ago, with a small group of disciples empowered by the Holy Spirit, who preached, and taught, healed in synagogue, and everywhere they went, lives and society was changed in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ. The Strengths of Early Church The early church did not just start to grow after Jesus ascension by its own enthusiasm. The disciples on the day of Pentecost were all together in one place. One of the strength of the early church is their ability to wait on God. Jesus instructed his disciples to wait (Matt 28:19-20, Luke 24:49) first for the Holy Spirit in order to do the work he commissioned them for. The disciples waited until when the Spirit descended on them on the day of Pentecost. The power received at the out pouring of the Holy Spirit enabled them to fulfil their mission. Waiting is sometimes part of Gods plan in order to be truly effective. Descent of the Spirit The apostles and disciples were the first recipients of the outpouring of the spirit with the evidence of speaking in tongues (Act 2:6). They received power to function like Jesus Christ; to preach the gospel with boldness, with signs and wonders following. The disciples spoke in prophetic speech that people of diverse nationalities represented at Jerusalem recognised their languages, which drew their attention unto God. Peters sermon on the day of Pentecost led to revival that caused salvation of over three thousand people. Followed by diverse forms of miracles, and healings enhancing the spread of the gospel. The Church was Bold Initially the disciples were very timid. But after the outpouring of the Holy Spirit they were filled with boldness to do mighty works and witnessing effectively. The outpouring of the Holy Spirit inspired evangelism and proclamation of the gospel of Jesus Christ. From the day of Pentecost when Peter spoke to community of believers the gospel has spread from Jerusalem to Syria, Asia, Europe and Africa. Despite persecutions, oppositions, imprisonments, plots they never relent, they kept on moving never dare to go to a new place to preach the word of God. The Early Church was very Prayerful Another characteristic of the early church was that they are very prayerful, committed to Gods will through prayer (Act 1:14). As it faces challenges the churches always came together to pray so that healings, miraculous signs and wonders will take place (Acts3:1-3, 4:1-10). The Church was in one accord One of the strengths of the early church is unity. The church was one, and there was no proliferation in the body of Christ. There were house fellowships where believers met for teachings and breaking of bread. None of the early Christians felt that what they had was their own; they never allowed any of the brethren to suffer when others had plenty. The unity brought by the Holy Spirit increased loyalty, commitment and love for God. Without unity, the church could not have survived; therefore they had everything in common. Perform miraculous signs and wonders Signs and wonders followed the apostles everywhere they went. The healing of the man at the Beautiful gate by Peter and John created a stir in Jerusalem that saved five thousand people (Act 3:1-3). The early Church did much miraculous work through the help of the Holy Spirit as the Lord had done. They confirmed the gospel with great power, miracles and abundant grace as they spread the good news. A lot of people were attracted to the early church by expressions of Gods power at work. People of Prayer The early Christians devoted themselves to prayer. They understood that Gods kingdom could only be manifested in its full power through fervent prayer. (Act 1:14, 2:42, 3:1, 6:4, Eph 6:18). In those days devote Jews pray 2 or 3 times a day and it was the custom of the disciples to follow this devotion. Peter and John went to pray at the temple (Acts 3:1), while Luke and Paul did the same (Acts 16:16). God rewarded Cornelius for keeping to hours of prayer (Act10). Weakness of the early church External Opposition: The early church was not without its own problem. The church experience both miracles and opposition the same time. There is external opposition from Jewish leaders who became uncomfortable with message of Christian liberty preached by the early believers, which undermined Jewish legalism. Besides the opposition from religious circle believers found themselves in conflict with social patterns of the day, because they no longer participate in emperor worship, refused to take part in bloody roman sport and pagan shrines. As a result persecution arose, many were exiled, killed, mocked and imprisoned. Jewish and Gentile Conflicts: God has no favourite nation or race, he only favours and accepts anyone who turns from sin and believed him. The Apostles initially want all people to be saved but did not understand that salvation was no longer restricted to Israel alone, but for everybody. The Jewish-Gentile conflict is the greatest barrier to the spread of Gospel in the 1st century. Until the issue was resolved, in council at Jerusalem, it was a barrier. Administration: as the early church increased in size, so did her needs and challenges. The new believers were moved by the Holy Spirit to share their possession (Acts 4: 32-37). But as the numbers increased, it became difficult for equal distribution of goods to meet the needs of everyone. The Hellenist believing widow felt neglected. To rectify this, the Apostles created the office of deacon to oversee the physical needs of the people. Later we see the Pastoral epistle written by Paul to Timothy and Titus, about the spiritual and character qualification expected for church leadership; in order to keep the church from false teachings (1Tim 3:1-13, Tit 1:5-9). Dishonesty and Greed: In order to gain recognition Ananias and Saphira lied about their giving to the church. (Moreover any unrighteousness move in the church prevents the working and movement of the Holy Spirit). God dealt harshly with the couple in order to reveal his hatred to all greed, deceit and dishonesty in the kingdom. The Peril of Heresies: The early church was not immune against false teachers and heresies. Already Jesus had warned his disciples several times in the Gospels to watch out for leaders who would introduce destructive heresies among Gods people (Matt. 24:11, 24:24-25). For example the book of Jude was written against false teachers who are distorting the gospel of Gods rejecting traditional Jewish and Christian teaching about morality, advocating sexual licence. In their teachings they denied original apostolic revelation about the person and nature of Jesus Christ (Jude 8, 16, 2pet 2: 1-3:4). Comparism between the early church and the church today The early church relied much on the leading of the Holy Spirit to get the gospel to the whole world, which I believe todays church need to learn from. Paul and Barnabas were commissioned by the Antioch church through the leading of the Holy Spirit, were directed by the spirit of God to specific areas to be a witness on their missionary journey. Our evangelistic or missionary moves should be according to the leading of the Holy Spirit. (Act 13: 1-5). Churches today do so many things in the name of the Lord with ulterior motives. Many at times we tend to do what we want in the name of the lord rather than what Gods want. The early churchs motives were pure. Their aim was to spread Christianity as far as they could. Some churches today are being run under the idea of men not of God. The Spirit of God had being relegated or given a minor role in the church. Making many worship centres to lack power thus dry and lukewarm. During the apostolic age the early church was established on apostolic pattern. But tragically the church today have departed from apostolic faith and doctrine but patterned itself according to human ideas and modern thought that now proliferate our churches today. Conclusion The gospel cannot be confined to one corner of the world. Therefore what the early church did is possible in our generation. The church was bold, filled with power because the early disciples were committed to the task of evangelising the world. Churches need to be committed to the work of soul winning and world mission, for example in the west secular humanism has become the dominant philosophy for many and the church is not immune to all this. We need to be more involved in world issues by ministering to the social ills of our environment, by our evangelistic move.

Computers in Teacher Education :: Technology Learning Teaching Essays

Computers in Teacher Education The computer has changed many aspects of American society, and the Teacher Education field is no exception.A future teacher now has to consider the computer along with all of the traditional subjects when preparing to get a teaching degree.Literacy in American schools no longer means that a student can read, write, and do simple math problems.Literacy has a new branch that is required of all students to learn-the computer. The computer is a vital part of the education process of today’s youth.The process of getting a teaching degree now requires that the University student be literate and competent when it comes to using and teaching computers.Future teachers are trained how to utilize the computer to enhance lesson plans and supplement learning.Computers are not only used to drill students on previously learned material, but also to explore new ideas and find new resources.Kevin Ryan explores these new concepts of teaching in Those Who Can, Teach, â€Å"The technology-assisted teacher, however, was facilitating instruction as needed, to bring about a deeper understanding and relevance.†[1]The teacher is no longer alone when thinking up lesson plans and related activities.The computer provides teaching software as well as endless material on the internet that teachers can utilize in their classrooms.The internet provides websites to bring resources together for all teachers to share.The w ebsites include classroom management tips, grade book software, lesson plans, and connections to fellow teachers.Teachers are no longer alone in their classrooms, all they have to do is visit a website, such as http://webpages.marshall.edu/~jmullens/edlinks.html, and everything they could need is accessible from their computer. Some teachers may feel apprehensive to include the computer in their classroom activities, but according to the National Center for Education Statistics[2], more and more teachers are turning to the computer to enhance the learning process. Computers are changing every aspect of the education field.Not only are teachers using the computer to help their students learn, but also the students themselves are going on their own to find resources and information via the computer.According to Ryan[3] a project in Florida, called CHILD (Computers Helping Instruction and Learning Development) students who are grouped together and allowed to work on projects involving the computer and traditional classroom methods ultimately did better on year-end standardized tests than peers in conventional classrooms. The number of students using the computer is continually rising, usage averaging about 1-2 times per month.The Nation’s Report Card researches the usage of computers by twelfth-grade students.